# Ref_Standards

Standard:
BS 6073: strength of commercial building blocks


# Ref_Header

Bibliographic reference:
Wainwright P.J., Cresswell D.J.F., van der Sloot H.A. (2002). The production of synthetic aggregate from a quarry waste using an innovative style rotary kiln. Waste Managemant & Resarch, 20, pp. 279-289.

Specifications:
quarry fines mixed with paper sludge, clay or dredged harbour material and fired in a specially-designed rotary kiln

Notes:
In this study, quarry fines were blended with paper sludge, clay, or a dredged harbour sediment and extruded then fired.  Two of the aggregates produced in this way were tested in concrete, giving results that compared favourably with natural and artificial lightweight aggregates


Bibliographic reference:
Ho, D.W.S., Sheinn, A.M.M., Ng, C.C., Tam, C.T. (2002). The use of quarry dust for SCC applications. Cement and Concrete Research. 32, pp. 505-511.

Specifications:
quarry dust can be used as supplied (<0.250 mm), but a higher dosage of superplasticiser will be required

Notes:
SCC= Self-Compacting Concrete.  In this application, limestone powder controls the segregation potential and deformability of fresh SCC.  Rheological tests compared limestone powder with quarry dust, and found that quarry dust performed as well as limestone.  Variable particle size distribution within quarry dust affected the flow properties of the SCC, and to overcome this problem a higher dose of plasticiser was required.


Bibliographic reference:
de Rezende, L.R., de Carvalho, J.C. (2003). The use of quarry waste in pavement construction. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 00, pp. 1-15.

Specifications:
grain size = < 100 mm diameter. Base layer was 20cm thick covered by 3cm surface treatment

Notes:
An 80m experimental road was constructed and tested over a 3-year period. The road was low-volume (of usage) and 10m wide. Results confirm that quarry waste can be used successfully as a base for low-volume road paving. A caveat is that the strength and durability properties of the paving are damaged by water.


Bibliographic reference:
Wilding, T.A., Sayer, M.D.J. (2002) The physical and chemical performance of artificial reef blocks made using quarry by-products. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 59, pp. S250-S257.

Specifications:
aqueous granite powder suspension consolidated with 5% cement and 5% coal fly-ash and cured for 90 days

Notes:
the blocks exceeded the strength requirement for commercial building blocks by 5 times and were tested for metal leaching- which was found to be significant but very low. They were deemed physically robust and environmentally safe, and are cheaper to produce compared with standard construction-grade blocks.


Bibliographic reference:
Weinecke, M. H. Faulkner, B. P. (2002). Production of lightweight aggregate from waste materials. Mining Engineering, 54, pp. 39-43

Specifications:
fly ash, bottom ash, waste fines, waste sludge etc are mixed. Bentonite clay binder may be added (2-3 wt%). Fired in a rotary kiln, and product screened for size.

Notes:
the process of forming a lightweight aggregate relies on the ability of the material to 'bloat' when heated in a rotary kiln.  The chemistry of the waste used must be appropriate for bloating to occur, or addtitives are needed. The paper is not very specific about the type or chemistry of the material used.


Bibliographic reference:
Touahamia, M., Sivakumar, V., McKelvey, D. (2002). Shear strength of reinforced-recycled material, Construction and Building Materials. 16, pp 331-339.

Specifications:
dry quarry waste compacted in layers with 'geogrid' reinforcement layers inbetween.

Notes:
this paper addresses the strength of building debris, crushed concrete and quarry waste as granular materials (with soil reinforcement 'geogrids') in comparison with crushed basalt, representing a 'traditionallly used' aggregate.  The quarry waste had a much smaller PSD than the other materials (<5mm as opposed to <13mm). The presence of geosynthetic reinforcement greatly increased the shear strength (by up to 50%) and restrained deformation.


Bibliographic reference:
Topçu, İ.B., Uğurlu, A. (2003). Effect of the use of mineral filler on the properties of concrete, Cement and concrete research 33, pp 1071-1075.

Specifications:
fine aggregate (0-2mm) is added to concrete mixes in the place of sand.

Notes:
mineral filler was detemined to improve the compressive and flexural strength of the concrete. The permeability, absorption and porosity were decreased. Improvements in the concrete held for values up to 7-10% filler, in excess of this no changes or detrimental effects were observed.


Bibliographic reference:
Singh, B., Majumdar, A.J. (1981). Properties of grc containing inorganic fillers. The International Journal of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete. 3, pp. 93-102

Specifications:
40wt% (of total solids) of quarry fines and 5.45wt% glass fibre used to make glass reinforced concrete boards

Notes:
the addition of non-pozzolanic mineral fillers to the glass reinforced concrete (grc) results in an initial decrease in strength (because they act as a diluent), but the long-term strength values may not be very different for those of standard grc. Long-term bending strengths may be higher in quarry-waste filled grc relative to the standard grc. Initial strength of filler-added grc can be improved by optimising cure conditions.


Bibliographic reference:
Persson, A-L. (1998). Image analysis of shape and size of fine aggregates, Engineering Geology. 50, pp 177-186.

Specifications:
quantification of fine material grain size and shape distributions using images created by UV polarization microscopy and scanning-electron microscopy.

Notes:
this paper describes a method for determining the grain size and shape distribution of fine aggregate using image analyis.  It is a rapid method of determining these properties, the knowledge of  which may allow improvement in products such as concrete and asphalt which contain fine aggregate. specialised microscopy techniques are required.


Bibliographic reference:
Rockliff, D. (1996) Low-grade quarry products, reclaimed aggregates and inert wastes – their use in unbound mixtures for road pavements. Waste Management, 16, pp 83-85.

Specifications:
the material must be graded to the required grain size fraction and moisture content levels. For some applications, material that contains chalk or argillaceous rock is inappropriate.

Notes:
this paper highlights problems with the specifications imposed on granular materials used as capping and fill in earthworks. It is desirable to use quarry waste and/or reclaimed aggregates; but, at the date of this publication, they are expected to pass soil classification tests which are likely inappropriately rigorous. this may change (have changed?) with the introduction of European Standards for aggregates and road materials


Bibliographic reference:
Marabini, A., Plescia, P., Maccari, D., Burragato, F., Pelino, M. (1998). New materials from industrial and mining wastes: glass-ceramic and glass and rock wool fibre. International Journal of Mineral Processing. 53, pp 121-134.

Specifications:
the chemistry of the quarry waste is important

Notes:
this paper describes a method for making glass-ceramics and glass- and rock-wool fibre from a combination of industrial, mining and quarry wastes. The purpose is to create new materials which can be used or diposed of without the environmental risk from heavy metals etc. present in some of the raw materials ('inertization of toxic elements'). Suggested uses of the ceramics are: paving, aggregate, radiant panels for stoves, ovens and radiators. Uses of rock wool are as a substitute for asbestos and in all fibre-reinforced products.


Bibliographic reference:
Nataraja, M.C., Nagaraj T.S., Reddy A. 2001. Proportioning concrete mixes with quarry wastes. Cement Concrete and Aggregates. 23, pp 81-87

Notes:
this paper presents a method of producing concrete of a required strength from different proportions of quarry waste aggregate, cement and water. The method is based on measuring the characterisitic strength of the aggregate in order to ascertain the required additional strength supplied by the cement mortar.


Bibliographic reference:
Hill, A.R., Dawson, A.R., Mundy, M. (2001). Utilisation of aggregate materials in road construction and bulk fill. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 32, pp 305-320.

Specifications:
coarse aggregate provides better strength- fines are more appropiate for use in making bitumen-based binder

Notes:
alternative materials (i.e. not primary aggregate) are not often used in construction due to factors including (i) uncertainty over their physical properties and how they will affect those of the construction and (ii) the potential risk of environmental contamination. This paper sets out to show that alternative materials, such as quarry waste, can perform as well as or better than conventional aggregate used for road bases and bulk fill. By determining the mechanical properties of such materials and demonstrating their envrionmental safety, it is hoped that the barriers to their use will be reduced.


Bibliographic reference:
Hammond, A.A. (1988). Mining and quarrying wastes: A critical review. Engineering Geology 25, pp 17-31.

Specifications:
exclusion of organic matter, non slaking or swelling in the presence of water, limited presence of water soluble substances and limited porosity of the aggregates

Notes:
review paper on current (1988) practice. Includes estimates of quarry and mining waste worldwide and descriptions of the chemical properties of typical wastes. civil engineering uses: backfill, landfill, reclamation projects, rehabilitation, embankments, railway ballast, fill material for dykes/dikes. Road uses: embankments, fills, subgrades; foundation, base and surface courses; fillers, binders, stabilizing agents. Building materials production: fill beneath buildings, concrete aggregate, brick making, paint making.


Bibliographic reference:
Çelik, T., Marar, K. (1996). Effects of crushed stone dust on some properties of concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 26, pp 1121-1130.

Notes:
in this paper, experiments are reported in which rock dust was used to replace sand in concrete in proportions up to 30% with all other ingredients and proportions constant. The following mechanical properties of the concrete when fresh and hardened were investigated: slump, air content, compressive strength, flexural strength, impact resistance, absorption, water permeability and drying shrinkage.


Bibliographic reference:
Catarino, L., Sousa, J., Martins, I.M., Vieira, M.T., Oliveira, M.M. (2003) Ceramic products obtained from rock wastes. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 143-144 pp 843-845.

Notes:
tiles were made by uniaxially pressing the powders to shape and sintering in air in a muffle furnace at 1150°C. The (density, waer absorption and bend strength) properties of the tiles were better than those of ceramic tiles made from clay (ordinary building tiles).


Bibliographic reference:
Amaratunga, L.M. (1991). Experimental evaluation of a novel concept of utilisation and disposal of fine mill tailings as aggregates by agglomeration. Mineral Engineering. 4,  pp 1081-1090.

Notes:
agglomeration of fines can be achieved using a binder (e.g. cement, lime or ferrous blast furnace slag) in a disc or drum pelletizer. Possible alternative agglomeration techniques are pressure, briquetting, tableting, extrusion, rolling and compaction. Most useful to dispose of reactive, environmentally unsafe fines.


Bibliographic reference:
Harley, A.D., Gilkes, R.J. (2000). Factors influencing the release of plant nutrient elements from silicate rock powders: a geochemical overview. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems. 56, pp 11-36.

Notes:
this paper reviews the very extensive evidence of the value of ground rock fertilisers of this type in agriculture. The geochemical background to rock nutrient sources is explained.


Bibliographic reference:
Bolland, M.D.A., Baker, M.J. (2000). Powdered granite is not an effective fertilizer for clover and wheat in sandy soils from Western Australia. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems. 56, pp 59-68.

Notes:
Discouraging results are reported from trials using fines from a granite quarry as a fertilizer fro wheat and clover; it is concluded that this dust has 'no value as a fertilizer'


Bibliographic reference:
Bakken, A.K., Gautneb, H. Sveistrup, T., Myhr, K. (2000). Crushed rocks and mine tailings applied as K fertilizers on grassland. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems. 56, pp 53-67.

Specifications:
rock contains K-bearing minerals such as biotite, K-feldspar and nepheline

Notes:
this paper reports disappointing results in an investigation of the K-fertilizing potential of nepheline/feldspar-rich tailings and a biotite concentrate from North Cape Minerals nepheline syenite operation, and from an epidote schist quarry at Inderøy (Norway) together with carbonatite and adularia shale.


Bibliographic reference:
Rosen, C. (2000). Agricutural use of rock fines as a sustainable soil amendment. Greenbook 2000: Marketing sustainable agriculture, pp. 61-63. Minnesota Department of Agriculture.

Specifications:
fines are spread over fields using a lime spreader.

Notes:
rock fines can be used to amend and improve soils with low P and K, and conform to organic farming restrictions.  The slow release of nutrients from rock fines means that no crop response is seen in the first year.  This article reports the methods and initial results of testing  this method on three farms.


Bibliographic reference:
Lees, R.N. (2003). New uses for mine and quarry waste in agriculture. AIG News 71, pp.13-14.

Notes:
this article invokes paramagnetism as an important contributor to rock dust's effectiveness as a soil enhancer. Other than this it is largely a staement of the current situation: i.e. more research is needed in this area.


Specifications:
"Like all of Quarry Tile Co.'s products, Eco-Tile meets or exceeds all of the requirements of ANSI 137.1 section 6.1 for Glazed Quarry Tile. It is available 50 plus colors, 5 field tile sizes and all of the key trim shapes needed for floors and walls."

Notes:
Tiles made by Quarry Tile Co. (USA). "In general, Eco-Tile contains about 70% recycled solid waste, as defined by the EPA. Eco-Tile's recycled material is a combination of post-consumer recycled glass, post-industrial grinding paste from the computer industry, and post-industrial mining waste from the sand and gravel industry. About 25% is post-consumer waste and about 45% is post -industrial. All of the recycled waste products are within a 10-350 mile radius of our manufacturing plant and replace materials that previously were brought in from as far away as 2300 miles. Eco-Tile does not carry a premium price when compared to other Quarry Tile Co. products."


Specifications:
pond fines require dewatering before use

Notes:
this american web-site outlines the material properties of quarry by-products and their potential uses. It is part of a user guideline manual which presents the results of research conducted for the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) on the use of waste and byproduct materials in pavement construction. Has references.


Bibliographic reference:
Harrison, D. Industrial mineral products from mining waste. Mining environmental management (January 2003, pp7-7).

Notes:
this article reports the results of scoping research on recycling practice in developing countries (Costa Rica and Namibia).


Bibliographic reference:
van Straaten, P. (2002). Rocks for Crops: Agrominerals of sub-Saharan Africa. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya, 338pp.

Notes:
this is a book covering the subject of agrominerals used/ of potential use in sub-saharan Africa. Agrominerals are rock-based products used to fertlize and/or improve soil. There is detailed information on micronutrients required in agriculture, and what agrominerals are produced in the sub-saharan countries.


Bibliographic reference:
Lamb, M. J. (TRL Limited) D1: Report on applications and market research, including proposals for laboratory tests (May 2003). Prepared for Viridis.

Notes:
prepared for a project entitiled "market applications for sandstone quarry (Pennant sandstone) sand surplus in South Wales". The study investigates applications for sand, silt and clay-sized waste materials both combined and as separate components. Priority was given to applications using the untreated material. 44 potential applications were identified from a literature review; this list was refined on the basis of market research to 11 applications to be explored in lab. trials.


Bibliographic reference:
Galetakis, M. and Raka, S. Utilization of limestone dust for artificial stones production. Processing and Disposal of Mineral Industry Wastes Conference 18-20 June 2003.

Specifications:
limestone dust and cement are mixed, humidified and compressed in a cylindrical mould (experimental set-up) to form artificial stone.

Notes:
The stone has acceptable quality charateristics. Work carried out at the Technical university of Crete, Greece.


Bibliographic reference:
Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund for Wales. Improving the information base on secondary minerals/ C&D waste for use as aggregates in Wales.  Draft final report November 2003. 115 pp. Prepared by ARUP engineering consultants.

Specifications:
waste materials used in place of primary aggregate to improve sustainability

Notes:
This report is a long document containing a lot of information specific to the aggregate industry in Wales. It notes that: 1) china clay waste is suitable for substitution, at least in part, for a wide range of primary aggregate types; 2) waste from the extraction and processing of igneous rock and sandstone present a significant opportunity for greater aggregate use, but it may be more sustainable to use these materials for site restoration as less processing is required; 3) limestone and dolomite waste arisings, stockpiles and usage proved impossible to quantify; 4) sand and gravel waste were deemed negligibly useful as an aggregate subsitute because most of the material is of silt grade and revovering sand grade material is expensive, thus the main use is as backfill or sub-soil in site landscaping and restoration; 4) slate waste is currently used quite extensively as aggregate, and this could potentially be expanded.


Bibliographic reference:
Harrison, D.J. (2003). From waste to wealth: developing saleable mineral products from quarry waste. In: Recycling and Reuse of Waste Materials. Eds Dhir, R.K., Newlands, M.D., Halliday, J.E. pp.281-286.

Specifications:
material from a sandstone quarry in Ireland was used successfully as low grade mineral filler in construction materials such as asphalt and concrete

Notes:
this is a paper that was presented at the International Symposium 'Advances in waste management and recycling' in Dundee, September 2003. It is noted that backfilling, site restoration, landscaping are the typical current uses for fines in Europe, and little attention has been given to the potentiel for use as mineral fillers.


Bibliographic reference:
Felekoglu, B., Baradan, B. (2003). Utilisation of limestone powder in self-levelling binders. In: Recycling and Reuse of Waste Materials. Eds Dhir, R.K., Newlands, M.D., Halliday, J.E. pp.475-484.

Specifications:
a 10% replacement of cement with limestone powder was found to lead to the best performance

Notes:
this is a paper that was presented at the International Symposium 'Advances in waste management and recycling' in Dundee, September 2003.


Bibliographic reference:
Glover, A.S. (Vulcan Materials Company) United States Patent 5,741,346. April 21 1998. Mineral and organic fertilizer.

Specifications:
fines defined at <0.297 mm. animal waste and rock fines are heated to kill pathogens and de-water and then fromed into pellets for easy application

Notes:
a patent for fertilizer made from a mixture of animal waste from agriculture and rock fines. The formula is non-specific as it is intended that the fertilizer is tailored to the needs of specific types and areas of agriculture. For example, different rock types could be used to create different element/mineral concentrations where needed


Bibliographic reference:
Frye, J. A. United States Patent 5,376,171. December 27 1994. Small particle size lightweight aggregate.

Specifications:
no specification for quarry fines, but they could potentially be used in this application

Notes:
a patent for lightweight aggregate micropellets which can be used to replace sand in cement, concrete et al. Made by mixing ceramic clay, liquid and waste material (such as quarry fines) in a high-speed rotating pin mixer and firing at 2000 degrees F.


Bibliographic reference:
Weyland, T.E., Koshinski, C.J., Baum, W. (Pittsburgh Mineral and Environmental Technology, Inc.) United States Patent 6,068,803. May 30 2000. Method of making building blocks from coal combustion waste and related products.

Notes:
a patent for a method of making building block from waste particulate silicieous material such as rock mineral fines by combining fines with a calciferous additive and water and curing under the influence of controlled pressure and temperature for a pre-determined time. Shaped, high-strength building blocks of precise dimensions and desired properties are made.


Specifications:
the chemistry of the rock dust supplied to farmers is controlled by mixing different rock types

Notes:
"Min Plus is 100% Natural, Multi-Mineral, Rock Dust. Min Plus instantly replenishes soil with minerals and nutrients found in volcanic rock. Min Plus Rock Dust activates the soil microbes and…" A report on this commercial product's use, written by researchers at James Cook University, is available from the website (PDF).


Specifications:
high quality topsoil manufactured from quarry fines and compost, surfacing material made from screenings/fines and binder in various colours with various hardness, flexibilty, friction etc properties

Notes:
this company sells manufactured topsoil, the research and development work that created it was partly carried out by the soil and environmental science department at Virginia Tech (USA) additionally, they have developed and sell a variety of products for recreation that are made from fines, sand and binders including tennis and baseball court/field surfaces, footpath surfaces and golf bunker 'stabilizer'.


Notes:
This company is a large aggregate producer in the USA and Mexico. They have expanded their marketing to include smaller-scale vending to, e.g., home owners in dry areas where decorative aggregate is used instead of lawn in gardens.  Also, they make a ballast: "Ballast-Crete ® has fast become the preferred choice in ballasting for shipyards, naval architects and engineers around the world. Its superior performance under demanding conditions coupled with the expertise of Lafarge's technical staff have allowed us to find answers to just about any stability concern."


Specifications:
fines converted into manufactured sand and 3/8" chips (INDOT 12's), these then blended with commercial 53 base stone (= 1 1/2 " to dust)

Notes:
the commercial 53 base stone aggregate is less dusty after blending with the manufactured sand and chips, and was found in tests to be easier to handle, spread and compact. It was thus well-received by customers.


Specifications:
a vigorous vibratory-compaction process is used in which a mix of granular materials and binders are placed in a mold and compacted for 2-5 seconds

Notes:
this company sells a machine for the manufacture of blocks from quarry fines. they can be used for: blocks and panels for building walls; light-weight aggregate (blocks are crushed to make aggregate); highway sound barrier walls, privacy walls and security walls; earth retaining walls and pond liners; paving blocks and roofing tiles. Research, development and demonstration facilities are located at the University of Denver, Environmental Materials Laboratory. RSC technology has been licensed for use in the United States, Japan and India.


Specifications:
quarry fines are marketed as "ag-lime" for soil improvement/ fertilizer

Notes:
"Burnsville Quarry — this quarry produces high quality dolomitic limestone used in concrete, asphalt and road-base applications. Other specialized uses include agricultural application of quarry fines (ag-lime) for soil amendment, and the use of larger sizes (12" to 36") as erosion control materials along local lakes, streams and rivers."


Bibliographic reference:
Research Report ICAR 101-1 An Investigation of the Status of By-Product Fines in the United States, (pp. 110)

Notes:
NOTE: This report in bound format only. This report describes a major effort undertaken to quantify and characterize fines, their location, character, and sales. Prepared by the International Center for Aggregates Research (ICAR) Task force #1: Uses for new product fines.


Bibliographic reference:
Research Report ICAR 101-2F : Framework for Development of a Classification Procedure for Use of Aggregate Fines in Concrete, (pp. 120)

Notes:
The focus of this project was to examine the methods and test procedures used in the past to characterize the properties of fines, and develop, on a preliminary basis, a framework to characterize and catalogue the properties of aggregate fines, propose new ones that would eventually complement a set of guidelines for the use of aggregate fines in portland cement concrete.  Possible applications of aggregate fines, such as in high-performance concrete, controlled low strength materials, and insulated concrete forms are discussed as future directions of research.


Bibliographic reference:
Research Report ICAR 102-1F: An Experimental Study on the Guidelines for Using Higher Contents of Aggregate Microfines in Portland Cement Concrete, (pp 435)

Notes:
This report presents some of the effects of high fines on the properties of cement mortar and concrete. A total of 50 sands were used in this mortar study, 10 of which were included in the concrete research. A summary of aggregate characteristics that affect the properties of mortar and concrete are presented along with the correlations evaluated between these properties.


Bibliographic reference:
ICAR 103: Use of High Fines Concrete (HFC) in Insulated Concrete Form (ICF) Construction, (pp. 126)

Notes:
This project work consisted of developing technical data to justify, from the standpoint of material properties (of aggregate fines and HFC), construction efficiency, cost competitiveness, and energy performance, a basis for the use of high-fines concrete (HFC) inside ICF wall systems. Although several aspects of the study are listed above, the report primarily concentrates on the material aspects of a limited number of aggregate fines sources and their use in HFC reltive to strength development and placeability.


Bibliographic reference:
ICAR 105-1: Summary of Concrete Workability Test Methods, (pp. 92)

Notes:
This project describes 61 test methods for measuring concrete workability. Many more test methods have been developed for a single project or for a specific application and have been sparsely reported in the literature, if at all. Although many of the devices in this document will likely never be used in the future and have been scarecely used in the past, an examination of tests that have failed and tests that have been supplanted by better tests in instructive in recognizing trends in concrete workability research and in slecting key concepts for the development of a new test metod. This document first describes key principles and trends in the measurement of workability and then describes the 61 test methods. Based on the successes and failures of past test methods and the current needs of the concrete industry, requirements for new test methods are developed.


Bibliographic reference:
ICAR 201 Series: Superpave Aggregate Specifications: 201-1, “Evaluation of Superpave Fine Aggregate Angularity Specification,” 
201-2, “Effects of Superpave Restricted Zone on Permanent Deformation,” 
201-3F, “Effects of Aggregate Gradation and Angularity

Notes:
Focusing on the specifications for fine aggregate angularity (FAA) and the restricted zone, this project determined the effects of these criteria on the properties and performance of asphalt mix designs. Using different aggregates, with a known proven performer as a control, mixes above, below and through the restricted zone were evaluated for rutting characteristics. Fine aggregates were collected from 25 state DOTs, representing a wide range of FAA value and know (subjective) performance. They were evaluated, using several techniques, for angularity, surface texture and aspect ratios. Results show that the Compacted Aggregate Resistance Test shows better sensitivity to fine aggregate angularity than the current voids test. Other techniques were also evaluated. Results show that the Superpave Restricted Zone is not needed to control gradation. The finding correlates well with other studies.


Bibliographic reference:
Barrie Oldfield (Australia). Rock Dust Puts Out More Than You Think. 6th International Permaculture Conference & Convergence, Australia, September 27 to October 7, 1996.

Notes:
In summary: Granite dust promotes the growth of tree seedlings./ it particularly benefits nitrogen-fixing trees./ it can provide K to plants./ it does not seem to raise the pH of acid soils./ Diorite dust may reduce weed competition./ Quarry dust improves water infiltration rates./ it improves water retention in free draining soils./ it benefits dairy pastures by promoting legume growth./ Granite dust has given a marginally higher yield from a lupin crop than either chemical fertiliser or a commercial rockdust blend./ Composting earthworms prefer a feed ration to which rockdust has been added./ Quarry dust may affect the way plants respond to electromagnetic radiation, in particular excess solar radiation./ granite and marble dust mixture appeared to benefit garden crops grown on an alluvial loam./ Granite dust contains lanthanum, considered by the Chinese to be a plant growth promoter./ Quarry dust may deter wingless grasshoppers./ Tree seedlings raised in a soil mix containing 5% granite dust appear to resist insects./ There could be a link between the use of dust and the absence of fungal attack.


Bibliographic reference:
Fraser, J.; and McBride, R.A. (2000) The utility of aggregate processing fines in the rehabilitation of dolomite quarries. Land Degradation and Development, 11, pp 1-17.

Notes:
This paper presents a study of the physical and mechanical properties of fines when used as embankment material. Pond fines were used to construct sloped embankments at the base of the vertical perimeter quarry walls. Shear strength increased with higher clay-sized particle content and higher dry bulk density, with lower sand content, and it peaked at soil water contents well below the measured field capacity of about 16 per cent kg kg(-1). Factors of safety calculated for slope stability decreased with decreasing shear strength (cohesion, angle of shearing resistance), with increasing slope gradient, and with the introduction of a water table. Nevertheless, the factors of safety were acceptably high for all scenarios tested (greater than or equal to 1.8), including scenarios using the maximum measured slope gradient of 37 per cent. Increasing the dry bulk density by 0.1 g cm(-3) over the mean density measured in situ did not improve the calculated factors of safety for slope stability enough to warrant increased mechanical compaction of the pond fines during embankment construction.


Bibliographic reference:
Services to business:  Utilising Innovative Rotary Kiln Technology to Recycle Waste Into Synthetic Aggregate.     Co-ordinator: Dr. P. J. Wainwright

Specifications:
The two rotary kilns at Leeds University may be used by businesses to conduct trials and feasibilty studies. Experienced staff are available for consultation.

Notes:
There are two trefoil kilns installed at the University of Leeds. A bench-top kiln with a capacity of 2 to 3 litres enables small-scale feasibility studies to undertaken, whilst a laboratory-sized kiln with a capacity of 40 to 50 litres allows much larger scale trials to be conducted. The aggregate produced by the laboratory kiln is in large enough volumes to be investigated for consistency and repeatability.


Bibliographic reference:
South African Peak Quarry (Company). South African quarry turns waste into valuable product. C&D Debris Recycling; Mar/Apr98, Vol. 5 Issue 2, The world of Svedala p19

Notes:
Peak Quarry is the largest quarry of its type in Africa, mining 1.1 million tpy of materials to produce aggregrates for building and construction materials, and dust for brick and block making. Crusher dust is sold to a nearby brick-maker. There is no longer a stockpile of fines, as the brick market continues to grow with construction in the region.


Specifications:
The 'dust', which contains about 80% dust and 20% fine grit up to 4mm in size, is sold for use in gardens, landscaping, lawns, drive-ways and house slab foundations

Notes:
Olives Australia has done a number of substantial trials on the use of basalt crusher dust for olive tree growth and health. All trials have  resulted very positively in favour of adding blue metal crusher dust to the orchard site prior to planting. More detailed advantages and the method of use can be found on the web-page


Specifications:
dust and screenings are sold for levelling under patios and other garden landscaping uses

Notes:
no prices on website or details of rock type


Bibliographic reference:
Supkow D. J. Rock Dust and the Environment

Notes:
a book which is about the benfits of using rock dust in agriculture


Notes:
from a website for organic gardeners and farmers, this page contains an article giving the personal testimony of a gardener who has benefitted from using rock dust in a variety of applications


Specifications:
glacial rock dust sold at 10lbs for US$19 or 50lbs for US$49

Notes:
"Using our Glacial Rock Powder in the garden insures that no trace elements will be missing. The soil organism populations will explode.This is the star of our soil products. According to Rudolph Steiner, the father of biodynamic agriculture, this stuff works because of a spiritual connection to the cosmos. There is scientific evidence pointing to this, which we will be glad to forward to you."


Bibliographic reference:
Madeley, P. C. 1999. Soil Remineralisation. BSc thesis Manchester Metropolitan University.

Notes:
Two sets of experiments were carried out with lettuce and cress to establish the effectiveness of a 'mixed volcanic rock dust'. The experiments were carried out in perlite and compost with the lettuce. The cress experiments were carried out on perlite alone. The growth of the lettuce in the dusted perlite medium showed a significant improvement over the control. The cress shoot height, root length and weight showed a significant improvement for the dusted cress over the control. The results for lettuce in the compost medium were not significantly different over time, however the average height of the control was the best suggesting that the rock dust may inhibit plant growth in the short term in rich soil mediums. The initial growth rate of all the plants was improved in the rock dust treated pots.


Specifications:
The rock dust supplied has a guaranteed analysis of Phosphoric Acid, Soluble Potash, Calcium, Magnesium and Iron. They use paramagnetic properties as a selling point.

Notes:
"Agrowinn-Minerals is the finest rock dust on the market (also known as rock powder or stonemeal). Rock dust is environmentally friendly and will not leach into your ground water. It is also a slow release product; its super-fine particles will pass through a 2500 mesh screen with water agitation. It is also easily applied with boom-type sprayers with diaphragm pumps only."


Specifications:
"mine rock dust from an underground mine, eliminating all possibility of foreign contamination"

Notes:
Mississippi Lime Co., Alton, Illinois, USA


Specifications:
Screened Topsoil, Turf Underlay (soil), Topdressing Or 80/20 Topdressing, Lawn Builder (topdressing), Organic Garden Mix (soil), Landscape Mix (soil), Rich Earth Compost, Native Mix (soil), Planter Mix (low density soil), Yellow Brick Sand Or Red Brick Sa

Notes:
"Supply and delivery of bulk landscaping, horticultural and quarry products. Supply and installation of cultivated turf grass.Sportsturf contracting activities including construction of cricket wickets, playing fields and racetracks. The products listed are sourced or produced at M.Collins and Sons Woodgrand Quarry at Elderslie NSW (Australia). Every truck is weighed and recorded before leaving the site to guarantee correct quantities for delivery. "


Specifications:
John Hamaker uses the term "gravel dust" to mean a dust "90% of which will pass through a 200-mesh screen."

Notes:
"Add 2-20 lb. of rock dust per cubic yard of compost, if one is doing pile or window composting." the website also has guidlines of quantities to use as an improver to exisiting topsoil. "For short-term rescue, very fine dust sprayed directly on plants and trees has been shown in research in Germany to deter insect infestations very effectively. Trails of rock dust around the garden help keep slugs out. And healthy remineralized plants will not be plagued by insect infestations in the future as they become healthier and more insect resistant."


Specifications:
weathering of silicate rock dust locks up and can therefore help control the levels of atmospheric CO2

Notes:
D. J. Supkow, “Using Rock Dust Helps To Control Atmospheric CO2 Buildup and the Greenhouse Effect”: This article is an excerpt from a longer technical paper on global warming and climate change.


Specifications:
AZOMITE® Rock Powders. Typical analysis available on website

Notes:
"The A to Z Of Minerals Including Trace Elements, AZOMITE is a unique naturally mined mineral product from a volcanic deposit in Central Utah. This ultra-fine, odorless powder contains a broad spectrum of minerals and trace elements that support metabolic activity to enhance root growth, increase crop yield and improve soil health." US$19.95 for 44lbs.


Specifications:
Mineral Rock Dusttm, paramagnetic, 2300 mesh

Notes:
"mimics the acions ofMother Nature by replacing minerals once spread via; glaciers, flooding & the wind. Over 70 trace elements feed soil microbes a feast which in turn feed the plants and promote soil & plant health.  Mineral Rock Dust is PARAMAGNETIC. Experts (ie: Dr. Philip Callahan & others) teach that paramagnetic rock has an measurable energy signature in the infra-red range which has an incredible growth effect on plants." use 175-250 lbs /acre,  US$10.00-12.50 per 25lb bag


Specifications:
Nutri-Score Crushed Lava, highly paramagnetic, typical analysis available on website

Notes:
this site gives some details of the theory of paramagnetism and its effects on plant growth. "Nutri-Score Crushed Lava contains good carbon levels, impressive re-mineralising potential and exceptional storage capacity. Nutri-Score has a water and nutrient holding capacity of 45%. It is a root zone wetter that increases drought resistance and improves nutrient retention. Nutri-Score reduces soil acidity and conditions all soils. Perhaps the most important benefit relates to the extremely high paramagnetism of the material. Nutri-Score has a paramagnetic score of 3500, which is twice that of rock mineral fertilisers."


Notes:
Canadian organic agriculture site. Notes that if dust is contaminated with petroleum products in the crushing process it may violate organic farming regulations


Specifications:
article promoting activities of "remineralize the earth"

Notes:
notable for this quote: "Robert Schindele is even more extreme. He eats gravel dust, two teaspoons a day, and markets it in parts of Europe as a 'mineral dietary supplement' under the name 'Superbiomin' - despite heavy opposition from the German and Austrian pharmaceutical industry. 'For years my hair was as white as snow,' he says, 'but since I have been taking gravel dust, it is almost black again. Chronic diseases, especially gout, disappeared.' "


Notes:
acres USA is a journal of sustainable agriculture.  This article details anecdotes and experiments showing the effect of using Azomite rock powder- c.f. http://growingsolutions.com/home/gs1/page/29/4


Specifications:
Fine powdered volcanic rock dust is an excellent source of nutrients for soil micro-organisms and recent university studies indicate that it improves soil conductivity. Broadcast over poor soil, such rock dust will induce a paramagnetic state and act as a

Notes:
this site promotes "geomantic" techniques in agriculture, and includes the paramagnetic properties of rock dust. "Paramagnetic stone circles and rock mulches around trees are also beneficial in the garden" "(Another way of inducing paramagnetism in soil is to build a Tower of Power, which acts as a waveguide for the paramagnetism emitted by the sun.) Alanna Moore can assess the paramagnetic qualities of rocks and soil in a locality and advise on their use."


Specifications:
it is claimed that the rock type and amount of water are critical, and that there is only one person with the traditional skills to make this type of paper

Notes:
this is a synopsis of a documentary that went out on japanese TV. It featured a master paper maker who uses rock dust in paper for traditional japaneses paper screen doors. The paper is heavy and durable, due to the rock dust.


Specifications:
personal testimonals as to methods of use and effectiveness

Notes:
these URLs are for a discussion forum on 'gardening with stone' there are questions and answers revealing people's experience and knowledge of using rock dust in garden landscaping projects


Notes:
centenary landscaping supplies website, Australia. AUS$48.40 per cubic metre of 'crusher dust'


Notes:
landscape supplies company (Nuway) sells crusher dust at AUS$39 per cubic metre


Specifications:
Washed & sieved scale size sand, gravel, crushed stone and scenery materials for model builders.

Notes:
Great Northern Sand and Gravel company website. Fineness of dust and colour critical for this application. CAN$2.49 for 7oz .


Notes:
Canterbury landscape supplies sell crusher dust at NZ$4.00 per 25litres


Specifications:
3 cubic yards used for one garden railway project


Specifications:
<5mm grain size range. NSC (Non-Sinter Chemical) bricks are cured at ambient temperature by chemical reaction thus cutting down on energy costs of production

Notes:
The specifications of NSC bricks are as good as sintered bricks, and they can be produced more cheaply


Specifications:
bricks are made from a combination of dust, lime and gypsum. They are pressure-moulded and air cured.

Notes:
website linked to the Indian department of trade and industry. It is essential a business plan for a brick factrory- with full costings. Crusher dust is costed at 50 Rs. Per tonne


Specifications:
¼" Minus and well graded to provide for excellent compaction and contains no large aggregate. Produced daily and stored in a covered bin so they are available dry year round. This aggregate is typically gray in color.

Notes:
Website of Graniterock, a US quarry group company with direct marketing of their fines. No prices on website.


Bibliographic reference:
Naik, T. R., Kraus, R. N., Siddique, R., and Botha F., Properties of flowable self-compacting slurry using quarry by-products and ponded CCPs

Notes:
This paper reports the properties of two series of flowable self-compacting slurry (SCS). In Series 1, a limestone quarry by-product, fine crushed sand (FCS), and ponded-CCPs were used. For Series 2, standard concrete sand and ponded-CCPs were used. Flowable SCS mixtures made with fine crushed sand (Series 1) achieved better compressive strength probably due to increased density than those made with standard concrete sand (Series 2). Mixtures containing FCS were also less permeable.


Bibliographic reference:
Hudson, B. 2001, Discovering the lost aggregate potential, Part 1.

Specifications:
this article has details of requirements of the concrete industry to help aggregate producers assess and market their products effectively

Notes:
a series of articles in 'Pit and Quarry' magazine: "Aggregates make up 80 percent of the volume of concrete, yet aggregates producers know very little about how aggregates influence their concrete clients' business - either positively or negatively. Only through understanding how aggregates work in concrete can producers start to gain fair value for aggregates products, and begin to use unwashed fines or other "marginal" material."


Bibliographic reference:
Couple dismissed as 'cranks' win funding for rock-dust fertiliser trial'. The Independent, Tuesday 10 February 2004

Notes:
six acres of exposed, infertile land in the foothills of the Grampian mountains near Pitlochry have been converted into a successful garden by Cameron and Moira Thomson. Previously, erosion and leaching were so severe that nothing had been grown in the glen for almost 50yrs. the couple established the Seer centre charitable trust in 1997 to test their ideas and have been granted more than £95,000 by the Scottish executive to conduct Britain's first rock dust trials.


Bibliographic reference:
Fowler, J. Construction uses of stone fines. ICAR 3rd annual symposium, 1995.

Specifications:
proper gradation plays a key role in the success of a stone masonry sand. They found that a 25% reduction in cement in concrete made using fines could be made while retaining the same 28-day strength

Notes:
this conference paper was given by a representative of the American Limestone Company of Knoxville USA, and gives details of how they market their fines to the construction industry- they are both quarry owners and concrete manufacturers.  It is emphasized that the gradation, particle shape, and quality of the fines is essential. quality refers to uniformity of composition. price must be competitive with other local sources of construction sand etc. and it is useful to make test concrete (or whatever) to show potential buyers that the fines are appropriate for use.  As price is the strong control, so it follows that the geographical constraints are strong.


Bibliographic reference:
Saunders, C. H. Manufactured sand usage in North Carolina. ICAR 3rd annual symposium, 1995.

Notes:
this conference paper details this history of the use of manufactured sand in road construction in North Carolina, and describes how specifications have changes in response to pressure from the aggregate industry who provided on site test slabs to finishers to compare performance with natural sand.  Initially, man. sand was used to construct a 5 mile section of US 52 in NC. The sand was produced in smith grove quarry to meet NCDOT's fine aggregate specification, the gradation limited the amount passing the #200 sieve to 3%. The results were terrible. The concrete mix was changed to 50-50 manufactured sand-natural sand. later, the gradation of manufactured sand was changed to allow 10% passing the #200 sieve. This led to much more successful results which have been accepted into the NCDOT specifications.


Bibliographic reference:
Manning, A. Particle shape - Manufactured sand. ICAR 3rd annual symposium, 1995.

Specifications:
the type of crusher affects the particle shape and end performance of the aggregate

Notes:
the particle shape  of manufactured sand can be altered to produce a quality product for use in ready -mix applications


Bibliographic reference:
Marek, C. R. Importance of fine aggregate shape and grading on properties of concrete. ICAR 3rd annual symposium, 1995.

Specifications:
increase the minus #200 content in order to reduce the void content. Use 5-10%. Gradings cannot be the same for aggregates with spherical particles and non-spherical particles

Notes:
this conference paper presents information on the significance of particle shape and grading of the fine aggregate on pertinent properties of the fine aggregate and the concrete in which used.  A method to measure the uncompacted voids as an indicator of particle shape, surface texture and grading is briefly reviewed with data on how these quantities vary in natural and manufactured sands


Bibliographic reference:
Dukatz, E. L. Effective use of aggregate fines. ICAR 3rd annual symposium, 1995.

Specifications:
fines with clay minerals will reduce concrete strength. Use chemical analysis to determine clay mineral content. Measure voids as a proxy for particle shape- a good predictor of performance. Also 'stiffening power' and Methylene blue titration for clays m

Notes:
"Fines are a considerable problem at most quarries. Either the customers are complaining that here are too many or not enough. The reasons vary by user. Traditionally, excess fines in concrete aggregate are considered to be deleterious materials such a clay minerals that inhibit the bond between the aggregate and the cementitious mortar.  Such materials reduce the strength of the concrete mix.  for asphalt mixes, fines are a blessing or a curse. The fines help stiffen high performance mixes, but have also been named as the cause of pavement blemishes and unstable pavements."


Bibliographic reference:
Wood, S. A. Pond fines: Waste not, want not. ICAR 3rd annual symposium, 1995.

Notes:
a predominant factor is the approach of the aggregate producer in regarding pond fines as a costly waste material and a "necessary evil" of aggregate production rather than adopting an attitude that the fines materials are potentially recoverable, usable and marketable by-products.  this conference paper examines the rationale for use of fines, lists potential end-use applications, and urges commitment from the industry


Bibliographic reference:
Wood, S. A. and Marek, C. R. Recovery and utilization of quarry by-products for use in highway construction. ICAR 3rd annual symposium, 1995.

Notes:
calls for specifications for specific construction products to permit greater use or greater volumes of quarry by-products, provided the performance of the resulting material is equal to or better than that of the material as currently specified


Bibliographic reference:
Able, R. J. Update on the aggregate industry investigation on the utilization of fines for remineralization. ICAR 3rd annual symposium, 1995.

Notes:
this conference paper is a 'progress' report on work testing the potential of remineralization by fines. USDA funded urban am=and rural pilot test plots were set up using granite fines, basalt fines, glacial fines. The author concludes that a fair amount of investigation and testing remains to be performed prior to the industry being comfortable in promoting various types of rock product fines as a soil amendment


Bibliographic reference:
Parker, F. Crushed stone fines for mechanically stabilized earth walls. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Specifications:
consistency and predictability of the chemical properties of the fines

Notes:
this conference paper reports on a study to investigate the advantages of crushed stone fines as engineered backfill for mechanically stabilized earth walls.3 materials, granite screenings, limestone pond fines and a natural pit run sand were tested for strength, permeability and chemical properties. a 12ft high geotextile fabric stabilized wall was designed using the measured properties, and it was found that crushed stone fines required less fabric reinforcement than natural sand, reducing costs.


Bibliographic reference:
Graves, R. E., Little, D. N. Importance of carbonate fines in improving structural contribution of unbound limestone. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Specifications:
carbonate fines and calcium hydroxide are added to coarser carbonate aggregate. Will not work with silicate aggregate.

Notes:
this conference paper describes a way of increasing the strength of unbound limestone using carbonate fines. Laboratory and field investigations were carried out in Florida and Texas.  The fines create extra strength by a cementation process, which can be enhanced by adding calcium hydroxide to the mix. The amount of strength enhancement depends on the mineralogy of the limestone and fines used.


Bibliographic reference:
Hancock, W. A., Scott, J. B. Leaving pond fines in manufactured sand for concrete. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Specifications:
retaining a portion of pond fines in the manufactured sand results in no deterioration of the concrete mixture. Users had been adding back fines to improve workability and finishability!

Notes:
this conference paper reports the experience of an aggregate producer in Georgia that had a fines problem. They investigated the possibility of allowing a portion of the fines to remain in their manufactured sand for concrete. In Georgia the DOT certified quarries were required to maintain grading target values of 0-7% passing the #100 sieve and 0-2% passing the #200 sieve.  these requirements were probably a hold-over from when most fine aggregate for concrete was mined from natural deposits. The clay and shale had to be removed from natural sand because they are detrimental to concrete causing high water demands, 'caking' and 'balling'. Fines- 'dust of fracture' do not cause this problem.  The study is reported as in progress, with the hope of influencing a change in the DOT's specifications.


Bibliographic reference:
Smith, J. O., Slaughter, P. Uses for by-product fines. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Notes:
this conference paper is about the fines problem, specifically in Georgia. It highlights the fact that the common specification for very low %'s of minus #200 fines in aggregate for asphalt mixes and increased demand for manufactured concrete sand have increased the rate of production of waste fines.  Concerns about developing uses for fines date back to the early 1970's. The first uses in highway construction was as fill materials, engineering decisions were made on a project-to-project basis. In 1993 the circumstances permissible for use of fines in highway construction were codified into the standard specifications, opening up sales. The paper also calls for more fines to be allowed in the specification for concrete (in Georgia), and gives a suggested specification in terms of % passing the standard sieves.


Bibliographic reference:
Brown, D. Use of waste fines as backfill material. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Specifications:
appendices containing the specifications of the material used are given

Notes:
where soil erosion and land gradients are a problem for developers, fines can be used as an alternative to soil backfill.  Waste fines are more easily worked than clay-rich soils, benefiting the contractors.  A test project was carried out in Georgia in 1988; the building of a large mall.  Fines from Vulcan Materials Kennesaw quarry were tested and found to withstand the required bearing pressures (4000psf).  Moisture density, safety factor of bearing capacity, void ratio and angularity of the waste fines were also found to be suitable.  The material allowed quick and economical construction of a large fill project in an urban area.


Bibliographic reference:
Anderson, D. A. Influence of fines on performance on asphalt concrete mixtures. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Notes:
the mineral filler in hot mix asphalt is known to play an important role in stiffening the binder.  the toughening and  increasing fracture resistance due to the mineral filler are less well documented. the simple dry compacted voids (Rigden) test can be used to predict the effect of mineral fillers on the mechanical properties of hot mix asphalt and it is suggested that it is adopted as a quality control test.


Bibliographic reference:
Jackson, N. M., Brown, R. H. Use of higher fines contents in Portland cement concrete. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Notes:
Particle shape, angularity, surface texture, geologic origin and grading of fine aggregate used in Portland cement concrete have been demonstrated to affect the performance of the concrete in service.  This conference paper presents the advantages of using manufactured sand with increased fines content.  Increased fines compensate for the reduced workability of manufactured sands relative to natural sands due to particle shape. The water demand can then be held constant. Fines contents in excess of 5% can be beneficial.


Bibliographic reference:
Baxter, C. Fines recovery: total elimination of slurry ponds. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Notes:
This conference paper describes machinery that can be used to separate fines from coarser aggregate in order to eliminate slurry ponds. It was given by a representative from a company manufacturing the equipment.


Bibliographic reference:
Kramer, D. A. Software for determining market areas for fines. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Notes:
this conference paper reports on a GIS based spatial analysis that was generated on using fines from aggregate operations to 'remineralize' agricultural and forest soils. The analysis is based on proximity of aggregate operations to agricultural and forest soils requiring replenishment of those minerals.  The prototype focussed on an area around Richmond, Virginia with a 75-mile radius.


Bibliographic reference:
Hudson, W. R., Weissmann, A. J., Razmi, A. M. Update on CAR fines research. ICAR 4th annual symposium, 1996.

Notes:
CAR sponsored the research project 'Engineering uses for aggregate fines', which started in September 1995.  This conference paper is a progress report on the project, which resulted in ICAR report 101-1 (ref. no. #41).


Bibliographic reference:
Fowler, D. W., Constantino, C. A. International research on fines in concrete. ICAR 5th annual symposium, 1997.

Notes:
this conference paper attempts to pull together research from countries other than the USA on use of fines in concrete. Studies from Canada, Saudi Arabia, India and Spain are cited. The following overall conclusions were drawn: for some mixtures and some fines, up to 15% fines as sand replacement can be used./ the use of fines, particularly at levels of 10-15% or more, can alter fresh concrete properties such as air content and slump./ drying shrinkage increases with increasing levels of fines./ increasing amounts of clay in fines significantly decreases the strength./ the methylene blue test appears to have potential to quickly indicate the level of deleterious materials in fines./ the sand equivalency test appears to be an important screen for the use of fines in concrete.


Bibliographic reference:
Crouch, L. K., Gamble, R. Limestone screenings as aggregate for excavatable controlled low strength material (CLSM). ICAR 5th annual symposium, 1997.

Specifications:
controlled low-strength material (CLSM) is also known as flowable fill.

Notes:
conclusions: limestone screenings containing up to 21% finer than 75 micron can be used as aggregate to produce a flowable fill mix meeting National Ready-Mix Concrete Association performance recommendations./ the proper air content in a well designed mix limited strength, generated adequate flow, eliminated segregation, and greatly reduced bleeding by producing a cohesive homogeneous mixture. The proper air content appears to be 14-30%./ flowable fill mixes containing limestone fines can be economically attractive where other aggregates are expensive--such as where river sand is expensive or difficult to obtain.


Bibliographic reference:
Fowler, J. C. Increasing amount of minus 200 fines in Portland cement concrete. ICAR 5th annual symposium, 1997.

Notes:
another paper highlighting the problems with specifications (most US departments of transportation and ASTM C33)  limiting the percentage of minus 200 mesh material in aggregate for concrete. The paper reviews studies by the national crushed stone association, North Carolina DOT, Vulcan Materials company, and a group in Spain. A new research project in Tennessee is introduced. All the studies conclude that more fines can be used in concrete than are typically specified for, however the actual % depends on end use and fines properties.


Bibliographic reference:
Machemehl, C. A. Solving the fines problem. ICAR 5th annual symposium, 1997.

Notes:
paper given by a representative of the Georgia Crushed Stone Association, describing their approach to the fines problem. They have set up a committee of industry, academic and government representatives. The uses identified are targeted to be relevant for Georgia aggregate producers. the committee has persuaded the Highway dept. to relax its specifications for fines in concrete sand, and pond screenings are beginning to be used as structural fill in the region. similar committees may be useful elsewhere.


Bibliographic reference:
Sculthorpe, R. E. Insulating concrete forms: market opportunities for aggregate fines. ICAR 6th annual symposium, 1998.

Notes:
a conference paper presented by a representative from AAB Building System Inc., a producer of insulating concrete forms (ICF).  Joint research with ICAR at Texas A&M University on increasing the fines content in ICFs is reported.  ICF technology is growing in use in residential construction in the USA. ICF built homes realize 44% savings for heating and 32% savings for cooling (totalling on average US$310 per house per year).


Bibliographic reference:
Barker, A. V. Soil remineralization for sustainable agriculture. ICAR 6th annual symposium, 1998.

Specifications:
details of amounts of rock dust and compost used in each trial are given. Compositional analyses of the rock dusts are given.

Notes:
this conference paper reports on field and container trials testing basalt dust and a glacial moraine dust as soils remineralizers in Massachusetts. Four crops were evaluated: lettuce, sweet corn, tomato, apples.  Basalt dust enriched soil fertility with respect to availability of some nutrients and elevated soil pH. These effects were not imparted to increases in yields of lettuce; however yields with compost and basalt dust were as good as those obtained with a complete organic fertilizer. Research with apple and sweet corn production indicated mineral fines had no effects on enhancing crop yields above those obtained with conventional practices. Container-grown tomatoes showed an early stimulation of vegetative growth with additions of mineral fines. Glacial moraine fines had a lesser effect on available plant nutrients than basalt dusts.


Bibliographic reference:
Hudson, B. P. Progress- ICAR project 102- Increasing fines in PCC. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
this conference paper is a progress report on ICAR project 102- increasing fines in Portland cement concrete. The project is a joint effort between ICAR, Vulcan Materials Company and Svedala Barmac.  The project aims to determine an acceptable level of minus 200 mesh material that will not diminish the overall quality of PCC.


Bibliographic reference:
Machemahl, C. A. Synopsis of the National Stone Association fines seminar. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
this conference paper provides a synopsis of a seminar organized by the Georgia Crushed Stone Association and the North Carolina Aggregates Association. It was held to provide and share information and ideas on screenings and fines that others have marketed successfully.


Bibliographic reference:
Watson, D. Georgia's experience with increasing the use of fines in concrete. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
in 1997 Georgia began allowing a higher % of crushed stone fines to be utilized in the production of Portland cement concrete. Natural sand was preferred because of its rounded particles-- better workability. In the North of Georgia there are no natural sand deposits and reduced haulage costs therefore made manufactured sand competitive. The gradation specifications are still unsatisfactory as a predictor of concrete quality, however. It is hoped that other tests will be developed that can provide true performance-based specifications.


Bibliographic reference:
Ahn, N., Fowler, D. W. Past and current fines research. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
this conference paper presents a literature review of research into the use of fines in concrete. It is surmised that up to 15% of the aggregate can be replaced by fines without deleterious effects.  References and more details are given in the paper.


Bibliographic reference:
Dumitru, I., Zdrilic, T., Smorchevsky, G. The use of manufactured quarry fines in concrete. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
this conference paper presents the results of detailed investigations to quantify the particle shape and gradings of fines. There are regional shortages of natural sand in Australia, and this research is looking at the process of producing manufactured sand, not only at using 'waste' fines. Some of the problems with 'waste' fines are highlighted- clay content, particle shape, grading


Bibliographic reference:
Dumitru, I., Zdrilic, A., Azzopardi, A. Soil remineralization with basaltic rock dust in Australia. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Specifications:
considered that basaltic dust has the best range of trace elements

Notes:
this conference paper reports on greenhouse trials into using basaltic rock dust as a soil improver and fertilizer. Rock dust contains a large range of trace elements and improves the soil pH, water retention, microbial activity, plant growth and soil structure. Basaltic dust with higher paramagnetic intensity is very beneficial for the improvement of soil quality and in turn plant growth and health. Four different basalts were used-- the one with the highest paramagnetic intensity gave the best results.


Bibliographic reference:
Collins, R. Innovative uses of aggregate fines in hot-mix asphalts.  ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
this conference paper reports tests on the use of fines in asphalt.  reblending aggregate to specific proportions can produce highly rut-resistant asphalt mixtures. High frequency aggregate screening and innovative blending strategies can transform excess or waste quarried fine aggregates into high demand premium performance materials.


Bibliographic reference:
Hudson, B. P. Potential errors in the FAA test. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
FAA= fine aggregate angularity.  This conference paper deals with the lack of tests to fully characterize the important properties of fines, namely: particle shape, particle size and particle surface texture. These properties are likely to influence the properties of concrete made from fine aggregate. The effectiveness of ASTM C 1252 is evaluated.


Bibliographic reference:
Zollinger, D. G., Faust, C. R. High-fines concrete (HFC) in insulated form concrete construction. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
"insulated concrete forms require a concrete mixture with unique workability and placement characteristics that facilitate proper filling of the form system while minimizing the potential for 'blow-out' failure of the form wall.  Although manufactured sands with minus 200 material seem to enhance these characteristics, there appears to be a reduction in strength due to the inclusion of the minus-200 sand material in mixtures that were proportioned for pumping applications."


Bibliographic reference:
Powell, D. Processing aggregates to improve particle shape. ICAR 7th annual symposium, 1999.

Notes:
particle shape has an influence on the performance of aggregates in most applications. The type of crushing equipment used will affect the particle shape, and a vertical impact crusher is capable of both producing and reshaping fine aggregates for use as manufactured sand in concrete.


Bibliographic reference:
O'Brien, T.A., Barker, A.V., Campe, J. (1999). Container production of tomato with food by-product composts and mineral fines. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 22, pp. 445-457.

Specifications:
The basic medium was compost and perlite (2 compost: 1 perlite, v:v). This medium was mixed with basalt fines or glacial moraine fines added separately at 60 or 120 g L-1. Nitrogen (N) fertilizer was added weekly to the media except for one treatment that

Notes:
This paper is a write-up of experiments reported in ref #107. Incorporation of mineral fines into the food by-product compost produced an early stimulation of vegetative growth, but did not affect fruiting of tomatoes significantly. Extractable (acidified sodium acetate solution) calcium (Ca) and manganese (Mn) from the media increased, but other nutrients were unaffected by additions of basalt or glacial fines. In all media, extractable nitrate and potassium (K) were almost depleted during the experiment; phosphorus (P) was moderately depleted, whereas extractable Ca, magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) were slightly lower or unchanged during the experiment. Tissue analyses showed that leaf concentrations of N, K, Mn, and Zn were below the range needed for well-nourished plants whereas Ca exceeded concentrations necessary for adequate nutrition. Tissue concentrations of P and Mg were sufficient for proper plant nutrition. Although fertilization with N and K, were necessary to sustain optimum yields, formulations of food by-product compost and mineral fines were excellent media for container production of tomato.


# General_Use_Applications

Application:
replacing limestone powder as a filler in Self-compacting concrete


Application:
base layer of flexible pavement (road surface)


Application:
as an alternative to primary aggregate used as coarse granular material for backfilling, highway construction, sub-bases for roads and railway tracks etc.


Application:
as an aggregate replacing sand in concrete


Application:
any where grain size and shape are important e.g. concrete and asphalt


Application:
glass-ceramics, glass- and rock-wool fibre


Application:
civil engineering, road construction and building-materials production


Application:
as a replacement for sand and gravel in concrete


Application:
fines are agglomerated using a binder to create a coarser material that can be used as aggregate for backfill etc.


Application:
soil amendment, soil improvement, soil conditioner, soil remineraliser


Application:
embankment material, base or subbase applications, mineral filler in asphalt paving, limestone screenings for agriculture


Application:
agriculture, fertiliser, soil improvement, soil remediation


Application:
surface courses for paths and minor roads; friction surfacing and micro-slurries; concrete applications; a cement extender; abrasives applications; horticultural grit and decorative chips; road sub-base; tile manufacture; synthetic soil; block manufacture


Application:
backfilling, site restoration, landscaping, mineral fillers, asphalt, concrete, synthetic soil, artificial soil


Application:
in concrete, to improve self-levelling and self-compacting properties


Application:
soil improver, fertiliser, soil enhancer, remineralizer


Application:
artificial soil, topsoil, recreaction surfaces for sports grounds and paths


Application:
aggregates for landscaping and other groundcover applications, ballast in shipping


Application:
modified aggregate for road construction


Application:
ready-mix flowable fills, solid waste landfills, agricultural uses, pipe bedding, mineral filler


Application:
geotechnical construction material, embankement, quarry rehabilitation, site remediation


Application:
synthetic fired aggregate for use in construction


Application:
for landscaping and garden construction projects


Application:
soil improver, fertiliser, soil enhancer, remineralizer, pest control


Application:
artificial soil, low density soil, brick sand, fill sand


Application:
artificial soil, soil improver, soil primer, soil remineralizer


Application:
fertiliser, fertilizer, soil improver, soil remineralizer


Application:
soil remineralizer, control of atmospheric CO2


Application:
paper making, tradiiotnal japanese paper, restoration of historcal and antiqu paper doors


Application:
as a base for drive way and garden patios/ fagstones


Application:
filling and compacting material for garden landscaping projects


Application:
scenery and stone materials for model builders


Application:
Uses include compacted base under pavers, as track fines, path fines, and athletic infield material.


Application:
as modelling material for making ornaments


Application:
stone sand for use in ready mix concrete, precast concrete, concrete block and masonry sand


Application:
manufactured sand for concrete pavement, in place of natural sand


Application:
many listed in the following categories: Asphalt concrete products, Portland cement concrete products, conventional crushed stone products, agricultural products, chemical products, industrial and precious minerals/metals, mineral coatings, fillers and pi


Application:
in road construction, asphalt, cement, base, sub-base and soil stabilization, fill backfill, embankments and earth walls


Application:
as a strength-improver in unbound limestone structures such as road pavements


Application:
in manufactured sand (aggregate) for concrete


Application:
as base in highway construction and in aggregate for concrete


Application:
as backfill material in land development


Application:
as fine aggregate in cement-bound concrete


Application:
flowable fills, concrete, sub base, earthworks


Application:
as aggregate in flowable fill (self-compacting concrete)


Application:
graded aggregate base, concrete sand, flowable fill, structural fill, brick SMA, asphalt filler


Application:
as soil remineralizer/ improver/ fertilizer


Application:
concrete sand, crushed stone base, structural fill, asphalt filler, flowable fill, manufactured soil, ice control


Application:
as a soil improver/ remineralizer/ fertilizer


Application:
hot mix asphalt, crushed aggregate base, Portland cement concrete, drainage layers, drain fields, erosion control


